[By Ayele Bekerie, PhD]:-
Mekelle, Ethiopia (TADIAS) – In 1896, eleven years after the Berlin
Conference, the Ethiopian army decisively defeated the Italian military at the
Battle of Adwa. It was a resounding victory because it aborted Italia’s
ambition to establish a colonial foothold in Ethiopia. On March 2, 1896, The
New York Times reported with a headline: “Abyssinians Defeat Italians; Both
Wings of [General] Baratieri’s Army Enveloped
“The terrible defeat” sent shock waves throughout Europe and the colonized world. It was the first time that a non-white people had defeated a European power. According to Teshale Tibebu, the victory the Ethiopians had achieved over Italy was different than other battles won by African forces. This was permanent.
While Europeans saw the defeat as a
real threat to their vast colonial empires in Africa, Asia, the Americas and
the Caribbean, the colonized subjects in these territories understood the event
as the beginning of the end of colonialism. Adwa as Davidson aptly puts it has
become a prelude to decolonization in Africa. Clearly the victory at the Battle
of Adwa lends itself to multiple meanings and interpretations, depending upon
perspectives and stances in relation to colonialism. The purpose of this piece
is to look into the interpretations of the event from the perspectives of the
colonized and how the victory brought about the idea of global Ethiopia. It can
be argued that the Battle has further enhanced the symbolic significance of
Ethiopia in Africa, the Americas and the Caribbean. Ethiopia has become a
symbol of the anti-colonial movements throughout the world. The Battle may have
also given geographical and historical certitude to Ethiopia. The Battle of
Adwa is another significant symbol in the imaginary of the idea of Ethiopia.
This paper looks into the symbolic importance of Adwa in the conception and
development of pan-African solidarity and identity.
Ethiopia at the time of the Battle
was a highly traditional empire-state where kings and nobilities ruled over a
predominantly agrarian people. Modes of rules were not only dictated by customs
and personal whims, they were also exploitative. Adwa then ushered a new
paradigm to alter or reform the tradition, to replace it with a modern system
of centralized and unified government. While the symbolic significance of the
Battle successfully echoed the call for freedom and independence and an end to
colonial domination abroad, the full meanings of Adwa have yet to be fully
realized within Ethiopia. Adwa suggests the power of indigenous multiple voices
voluntarily cooperating to defeat and challenge the European colonial order.
Virtually all the regions,
religions, linguistic groups, aristocrats and peasants pulled their resources
together to formulate and execute a strategy of victory. By their actions the
Ethiopians were not only affirming the power and immense possibilities of unity
in diversity, but they were placing issues of freedom and internal reform at
the top of the national agenda. Adwa necessitates a new set of directions
interspersed with broader definition and application of freedom so that all
those who participated in the Battle would be able to participate in the
affairs of their country. As Maimre puts it, “from the perspectives of the
thousands who participated in the campaign of Adwa, the resistance to the
Italian invasion embodies the aspiration for freedom, equality and unity as
well as the rejection of colonialism.”
Adwa reminds the Shoan nobility to
let freedom ring from northern highlands to the rift valleys, the river basins,
the plain lush fields of Arussi and the salty Danakil depressions. Adwa
presents a unique opportunity to reconfigure the empire-state. Unfortunately,
absolutism and imperial glory overshadowed and undermined the emancipatory
route suggested by the historic event of Adwa. Adwa presses on the monarchy to
modernize and to let the people involve in the political process through
constitutional means. Unfortunately, the leaders resisted internal reform or
introduced ineffective and nominal elements of modernity. Absolute monarchy,
imitative and nominal modernization and detached and non-transformative
tradition were pursued and, to this date, insist on clinging to the status quo.
The status quo is the cause of immense poverty and disenfranchisement for the
vast majority of the people in the country.
Adwa’s magnificent victory is a
model in as far as people of various cultures, religions and languages
willingness to assemble for a purpose. 100,000 Ethiopian troops took positions
on the fields and mountains of Adwa to encircle and defeat the enemy. The
multi-cultural army paid the ultimate sacrifice when about nine thousand of its
soldiers died at the Battle. With their sacrifice, they set the stage for the
birth of a new Ethiopia where the reach of freedom, politically and
economically, would be more egalitarian. The model, unfortunately, was not
pursued in post-Adwa Ethiopia. The model of voluntary cooperation and coexistence
has yet to be implemented in the twenty first century Ethiopia. The model has
yet to break the cycle of poverty and endless violent conflicts in the Horn of
Africa.
While the victory is certainly a
major milestone in Ethiopian history, Menelik and his successors failed to
fully appreciate and adopt the new reality that emerged (locally and
internationally) as a consequence of the victory. The meaning and reach of
freedom hampered by intolerance to internal criticism and resistance to reform
the monarchy. Internationally, most historians agree that Adwa opened the way
for the ultimate demise of colonialism in Africa and elsewhere.
Adwa is significant because it
disturbed the colonial order in the world. Colonial subjects interpreted Adwa
as a call to resist and defeat colonialism and racial oppressions through out
the world. With Adwa, they have a permanent symbol and a constant reminder that
colonialism was wrong and it ought to be defeated. No system is just in as long
as it treats human beings as objects and fodders to exploitative and profitable
economic systems. Citizen subject is a right that cannot be denied and that
should be exercised if at all freedom is a universal right of peoples and
communities. Adwa, to most historians, is an African victory. The 1884-85
Berlin Conference was convened to divide up the entire continent of Africa and
assign colonial territories to European powers. The Europeans allocated the
Horn of Africa to Italy. Italy’s unsuccessful military push in Ethiopia was a
part of the European colonial order in Africa.
In preparation for this essay, I
conducted field and library research in Ethiopia and abroad. I visited the town
of Adwa in September 2006 and March 2012. Adwa is only 25 miles west of the
ancient city of Aksum. I made the journey to Adwa in search of memorial
markings, to participate in the 116th Battle of Adwa Anniversary, to pay
tribute to the war heroes and heroines, to converse with residents and to visit
relevant institutions and museums. The Battle of Adwa is known locally as 1886,
the Ethiopian calendar year for 1896.
I also had a chance to examine
archival documents in the Institute of Ethiopian Studies at Addis Ababa
University and the National Archive in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The National
Archive has, among other books, manuscripts and papers written in local
languages and scripts, a rich collection of documents encompassing the 18th,
19th and early 20th centuries of the Common Era in Ethiopian history. I
particularly read and copied relevant documents from the archival collections
of Belata Mersea Hazen Wolde Qirqos, Doctor Dejazemach Zewde Gebre Selassie,
Dejazemach Kebede Tessema, and Aleqa Taye Gebre Mariam. Recent publications of
memoirs in Amharic by former palace officials or associates, such as Fitawrari
Tekle Hawariat Tekle Mariam and Dejazemach Zewde Retta, have also helped a
great deal to elucidate historic events. Tsehafe Tezaz Gebre Selassie’s Tarike
Zemen Ze Dagmawi Menelik Neguse Negest Ze Ethiopia (Historical Period of
Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia) is a useful source of the Battle. Gebre
Selassie served as a personal chronicler of the Emperor.
The collection donated to the
National Archive by Belata Merse Hazen Wolde Qirqos includes a critical essay
entitled Atse Menelikena Ethiopia (Emperor Menelik and Ethiopia) written
by a great Ethiopian scholar, Gebre Hiwot Baykedagn. His essay criticizes
Ethiopian historians for failing to engage in critical interpretations of the
past. He also points out the achievements and failures of Emperor Menelik II.
Another scholar who was trained in Europe, Afeworq Gebreyesus wrote the
biography of Emperor Menelik. The work is regarded as serious and fruitful.
Gebre Hiwot Baykedagn criticizes the book for lack of balance in the appraisal
of the leadership of Emperor Yohannes II in comparison to Emperor Menelik. In
addition, almost ten years ago, I participated in a book project to celebrate
the centennial anniversary of the Battle of Adwa. The book, One House: The
Battle of Adwa 1896-100 Years, edited by Pamela S, Brown and Fasil Yirgu,
has contributors, such as the Late Laureate Tsegaye Gebre Medhin, Richard
Pankhurst, and Teshale Tibebu. My contribution is entitled “How Africa Defeated
Europe.”
Menelik’s (Abba Dagnew) success at
the Battle of Adwa may be attributed to the following factors: One, he
surrounded himself with great advisors, such as Empress Taitu Bitul, Fitawarari
Habte Giorgis Dinegde (Abba Mechal) and Ras Mekonnen, a nephew and father of
Emperor Haile Selassie.
Menelik was a popular leader, skillful
diplomat, and good listener. Menelik believed in reconciliation. Those who
revolted against him once defeated they were immediately pardoned and allowed,
unfortunately, to retain their original privileged position. Menelik was keenly
aware of the colonial expansionist ambition of the French, British and Italians
in the region. As a result, he actively sought and acquired modern weapons from
Europe. He even bought a large quantity of weapons from the Italians. He also
fully exploited the rivalries among the three colonizers. More importantly, out
of a long war experience, together with his ministers, regional kings, he
developed a winning war plan.
Menelik’s war declaration was widely
heeded and welcomed throughout the country, a clear affirmation of his popularity.
Menelik’s declaration is an important literary document in the context of
preparation, the will to fight and become victorious at the Battle of Adwa.
Menelik appealed to love of family, religion and country. He reminded
Ethiopians that the intention of the enemy is to take away the core values and
traditions cherished by the people. Menelik declared (translation mine):
“Up until now, through the grace of
God, who permitted me to live by destroying my enemies and expanding the
territorial boundaries of our country. It is also through the grace of God that
I am ruling. Therefore, I have no fear of death. More importantly, God has
never let me down and I am confident that he will let me be victorious again.”
“At this time, another enemy has
entered our territory by crossing our God given sea. His objective is to
destroy the country and to change the religion. As a result of a major cattle
disease that devastated a large number of our livestock and brought great
sufferings to our farmers and pastoralists in the last few years, I remained
quiet and patient to numerous hostile provocations. And yet the enemy continued
to dig dipper in the ground like a hog.”
“Now God willing or with God’s help,
I will not surrender my country. My fellow country folks, I do not believe that
I disappointed you in the past. You have not also disappointed me. If you are
strong, then help me with your strength to fight the enemy. If you are not
strong, I seek your moral support for the sake of your children, wife and
religion. If, on the other hand, you seek lame excuse not to join the national
campaign against our enemy, I will be upset and I will not have mercy on you, I
will punish you. My campaign begins in October, and I expect volunteers from
Shoa to gather in Woreilu by mid October.”
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This article is well-referenced and those who seek the references should contact Professor Ayele Bekerie directly at: abekerie@gmail.com.
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This article is well-referenced and those who seek the references should contact Professor Ayele Bekerie directly at: abekerie@gmail.com.
About the Author:
Ayele Bekerie is an Associate Professor at the Department of History and Cultural Studies at Mekelle University.
Ayele Bekerie is an Associate Professor at the Department of History and Cultural Studies at Mekelle University.
Source: Tadias Addis